Simplified diagram of the styrene polymerization process | Source: ref. nr. 40 in the description

Polystyrene is today produced almost exclusively by continuous bulk (mass, or modified-bulk solution) free-radical polymerization of styrene: both GPPS and HIPS are produced by continuous-mass radical polymerisation of styrene, and over 85% of world PS and impact-PS capacity reportedly operates on the continuous bulk route, with suspension polymerization surviving mainly for expandable polystyrene (EPS). The technology is mature and universally practised, but it is not a single licensed process: several companies (Versalis, TotalEnergies, INEOS, Toyo/Mitsui and, more recently, Chinese contractors) each offer their own continuous-mass process packages, built around the same generic flow scheme — rubber dissolution (for HIPS), prepolymerization, finishing reactors, vacuum devolatilization with monomer recycle, and pelletizing. Single-line capacities from roughly 10,000 to 250,000 t/a are offered by licensors, with Chinese references citing operating continuous-bulk lines of 20–160 kt/a.

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